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Language Learning strategies

   Name:- Kailash Baraiya

 Course:- M.A. EnglishSemester:- 03

Batch:-2016-2018 

Enrollment no:- PG2069108420170001

Submitted to:-Smt. S.B. Gardi Dept. of English MKBU

 Email id:- kailashbaraiya21@gmail.com 

Paper no:- 12, English Learning  Teaching - 1

Topic:- Language learning Strategies 

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     Itroduction:-

                     Language learning strategies is a term referring to the processes and actions that are consciously deployed by language learners to help them to learn or use a language more effectively. They have also been defined as ‘thoughts and actions, consciously chosen and operationalized by language learners, to assist them in carrying out a multiplicity of tasks from the very outset of learning to the most advanced levels of target language performance’. The term language learner strategies, which incorporates strategies used for language learning and language use, is sometimes used, although the line between the two is ill-defined as moments of second language use can also provide opportunities for learning.

 v      Background (History):-

                    Language learning strategies were first introduced to the second language literature in 1975, with research on the good language learner.  At the time it was thought that a better understanding of strategies deployed by successful learners could help inform teachers and students alike of how to teach and learn languages more effectively. Initial studies aimed to document the strategies of good language learners. In the 80s the emphasis moved to classification of language learning strategies. Strategies were first classified according to whether they were direct or indirect, and later they were strategies divided into cognitive, Metacognitive or effective / social categories.                 In 1990, Rebecca Oxford published her landmark book "Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know" which included the "Strategy Inventory for Language Learning" or "SILL", a questionnaire. which was used in a great deal of research in the 1990s and early 2000s.       Controversy over basic issues such as definition grew stronger in the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, with some researchers giving up trying to define the concept in favor of listing essential characteristics. Others abandoned the strategy term in favor of "self regulation".       This section offers a conceptual background for understanding language learning strategies,summarizing common features of these strategies and then delineating six types of strategies. v      Common Features of Language Learning Strategies:-

                   All language learning strategies are related to the features of control, goal - directedness, autonomy and self - efficasy.                                               Goals are the engine that fires language learning action and provieds the direction for the action ,example of goals are to use English fluently and accurately in business, to order meals, to ask directions, etc. Using learning strategies does not instantly propel language learners to attain such goals. They are usually fulfilled by aiming for smaller short - term language goals - or proximal subgoals - linked to specific language tasks.                        For instance, the aim of rapidly but accurately reading many English - language journal articles can be addressed by reading and understanding one such article per week until good comprehension is matched by speed. Relavent learning strategies for accomplishing this weekly task include scheduling time to read articles, skimming for main ideas, nothing key vocabukary and guessing from the context, all of which might be called a strategy chain: a set of interlocking, related and mutually supportive strategies.                        Learning strategies help learners become more autonomouse. Autonomy requires conscious control of one's own learning processes. For discussions of autonomous language learning, see Holec 1981, 1985; Allwright 1990; Wenden 1991; Dam 1995; Cotterall 1995. Learning strategies also enhance self -n efficacy, individuals' preception that they can successfully complete a task or series of task.  

   Types of Language Learning Strategies And and their Background:-

             

                        Major varieties of language learning strategies are congnitive, mnemonic, metacongnotive, compansatory, affective and Social. Theoratical distinction can be made among these six types; however, the boundaries are fuzzy, particularly since learners sometimes employ more than one strategy at a given time.  

 1.Congnitive Strategies:-                      Congnitive strategies help learners make and strengthen associations between new and already knowen information (O'Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990, 1996) and facilitate the mental restructuring of imformation (Iran - Nejad et al. forthcoming). Example of congnitive strategies are guessing from context, analysing, reasoning inductuvely, takinng systematic notes and reorganising information.

                              A different theory of language learning is the tapestry approach (Scarcell and Oxford 1992), which reflects work of Vyogotsky (1978, 1986). Vyogotsky emphasised that learning occurs in interaction with other people. Especially with the help of a 'more capable other'. often a teacher. The  teacher provides acaffolding, or assistance given to the learners, which is gradually pulled away when the learner no longer needs it. In these approaches teachers can help students develop congnitive learning strategies also knowen as higher thinking skills, such as searching for clues in surrounding material and  one's own background knowledge, hypothesising the meaning of the unknown item, determining if this meaning makes sense and, if not, repeating at least part of the process.  

2.Mnemonic Strategies:-                             Mnemonic strategies help learners link a new with something knowen. These devices are useful for memorising information in an orderly string in various ways; examples are : by sounds, by body movement (e.g. total physical response, in which the teacher gives a command in English and learners physically follow this) or by location on a page or blackboard. Theoratical and empirical justification exists for separating mnemonic strategies from congnitive strategies. In contrast to congnitive strategies, mnemonic strategies do not typically foster deep associations but instead relate one thing to another in a simplistic, stimulus - response manner. Even with their limitations, mnemonic strategies are often the first step in learning vocabulary items or grammar rules.

3.Metacongnitive Strategies:-                        Metacongnitive strategies help learners manage: 1. Themselves as learners, 2. The  general learning process and 3.Specific learning tasks. Several varieties exist. One group of metacongnitive strategies helps individuals know themselves better as language learners. Self - knowledge strategies include identifying one's own interests, needs and learning style preferences. Learning  styles are the broad approaches that each learner brings to language learning or to solving any problem. Example of learning styles include visual Vs. auditory vs. kinesthetic, global vs. analtic, concrete - sequentials vs inuitive - random, and ambiguity - tolerant vs. ambiguity - intolerent. Knowledge of learning  styles helps learners choos strategies that comfortably fit with their learning styles, althogh using and learning others is obviously useful.

               Another set of metacongnitive strategies relates to managing the learning process in general and includes identifying available resources, deciding which resources are valuable for a given task, setting a study scheduale, finding or creating a good place to study, etc. This set also includes establishing general goals for language learning. Language learning may be hindered if goals are unclear or in conflict.

                Other mtacongnitive strategies also help learners deal effectively with a given language task, not just with the overall procss of language learning. This set of metacongnitive strategies includes, among other techniques, deciding on task - related goals for language learning, paying attention to the task at hand, planning for steps withi n the language task, reviewing relevent vocabulaty and grammar,finding task - relevant materials and resourses, deciding which other strategies might be  useful and applying them, choosing alternative strategies if those do not work and monitoring language mistakes during the task.

4.Compensatory Strategies for Speaking and Writing:-                  Compensatory strategies for speaking and writing  help learners make up for missing knowledge when using English in oral or written communication, just as the strategy of guessing from the context while listening and reading compensates for a knowlwdge gap.Compensatory strategies or communication strategies for speaking include using synonyms, circumlocution and gesturing to suggest the meaning. Compensatory strategies for writing encompass some of the same actions, such as synoyms use or circumlocution.

               Cohen(1997) asserts that communication strategies are intendend only for language use, not for language learning, and that such strategies therefore not be considered language learning strategies. However,n Little (1990) and Oxford (1990) contend that compansantory strategies, even when employed for language use, simultaneously aid language learning: each instance of language use provides an immendiate opportunity for 'incidental learning'. Incidental learning is one of the most important but least researched areas in language learning. 

5.Affective Strategies:-                    Affective strategies include identifying one's feelings and becoming aware of the learning circumstance or tasks evoke them . Using a language learning diary to record feelings about language learning can be very helpful, as can 'emotional checklists'. However, the acceptability or viability of affective strategies is influenced by cultural norms. Some cultures do not encourage individuals to probe or record their own feelings in relation to learning.

                  Language learning anxiety - which has received an abundance of attention in the last decade - is usually related to fear of communicating in English when a judgement of performence is anticipated. In some individuals anxiety can sorely  sabotage the language learning process. Certain affective strategies can help learners deal with anxiety through actions such as deep breathing, laughter, positive self- talk and praising oneself  for performence. Corno (1993) suggests additional strategies, including generating useful diversion or visualising success and feeling good about it. 

             Negative attitudes and beliefs can reduce learners' motivation and harm language learning, while positive attitudes and beliefs can do the the reverse. Using the affective strategies to examine beliefs and attitudes is therefor useful for e.g., learning any language, the native speaker, the teacher and the language classroom.

6.Social Strategies:-                  Social strategies facilitate learning with others and help learners understand the culture of the language they are learning. Examples of social strategies are asking questions for clarification or confirmation, asking for help, learning about social or cultural norms and values and studying together outside of class. Congnitive information - processing theory tends to downply social strategies in favour of congnitive and metacongnitive strategies; however, social strategies are nevertheless crucial for communicative languages learning.

  vResearch:-

               We first present tools for assessing use of language learning strategies and then address three areas of strategy research: the 'good language learner', strategy instruction research and influence on strategy choice.

 vAssessing Strategy Use:-

                    Rubin (1975) originally used observation to assess language learning strategy use. Some strategies - such as asking questions for clarification, taking notes and making outlines - are directly observable. However, other strategies - such as using inductive logic to determine a grammar rule or macking mental associations between a new word and knowen concepts - are not. Other techniques are therefore used, including interviws, verbal reports while doing a task, strategy diarise, and strategy questionnaires such as the Strategy Inventory for Language learning. Cohen and Scott (1996) discuss the purpose and limitations of each technique.

 vThe Good Language Learning:-

                       Studies in the mid - 1970s focused on characteristics of the 'good language learner'. Rubin (1975) identifies the following characteristics of the good language learner; he or she:

  

• is a willing and accurate guesser;

• has a strong drive to communicaate;

• is a uninhibited and willing to make mistakes;

• focuses on form by looking at patterns and using analysis;

• takes advantage of all practice opportunities;

• monitors his or her own speech and that of others;

• pays attention to meaning. 

                    Naiman et al. added that good language learners learn to think in the language and deal with affective aspects of language learning. Although tantalising, 'good language learners' studies are sometimes interpted as being a little too prescriptive and not always open to multiple ways of language learning. Such studies led to investigation comparing more successful language learners with less successful peers. At first it was thought that the former, compared with the latter, employed more strategies and did so with greater frequency, more awareness and bette abolity to describe their strategy use.

             However, none of these factors consistently distinguished betwen more and less effective language learners. It was observed that more successful learners typically understand which strategies fitted the particular language tasks they were attempting. Moreover, more erffective learners are better at combining strategies as needed. vRelationship between strategy use and language proficiency:-

                     Research shows that greater strategy use is often related to higher levels of language proficiency. Many preictive studies about the realtionship between strategy use and language proficiency have employed SILL. In these predictive studies, strategy use explained from 21 percent to 61 percent of the variability or differences in English proficiency Scores.

      It was found that reported strategy use does not totally predict language profiency. However, strategy use clearly contributes to language learning, and in many studies the contribution is substantial. If strategy use and language proficiency are related, how  can we improve learners strategy use? Strategy instruction offers interesting possibilities. vInfluences On strategy Choice:-

                        According to language studies, many factors influence strategy use.

• Motivation was an important influence on strategy use, with greater motivation retated to higher frequencies of strategy use. As to scholar explained, learning strategies as goal - directed behaviours inherently indicate the presence of motivation. 

•  

• The language learning environment affected straegy use, with students in ESL environments using strategies more frequently than those in EFL environments. 

•  

• Learning style and personality type infuenced strategy use. 

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• Gender has frequently been asresociated with strategy use; with some variation across studies, females usually report greater strategy use than males. However, the reverse was true in two middle eastern culture and among Sebro - Croatian refugees in Sweden. Result suggest that gender - role socialisation might be a factor in these differences. 

•  

• culture or national originhad a strong effect on how students learn, according to general research. 

•  

• Age affected thebkinds of strategies studentas reported, but even young children were able to identify and describe their language learning strategies. 

•  

• The nature of the language task was an influence on strategy choice in many studies. 

 vPractice:-

             The research given in this chapter has implication for classroom practice in several rlated areas: assessing instruction to learners' needs, considering formats for strategy instruction and conducting strategy instruction in the language classroom.

• Assessing strategy use: ESL or EFL classrooms can benefit from the  assessment of learners' strategy use. Strategy assessment, particularly when discussed openly, can lead to greater understanding of learning strategies by learners alike. Practical, realistic means - such as Questionnaires, interviews, learner diaries and classroom observations - exist to conduct strategy assessment. 

• -

• Attuning instruction to learners' needs: The more teachers knows about their students' current learning strategy preferences, the more effectively they can attune instruction and to the specific needs of students. For example, one student might benifit from more visually presented rather than auditorally presented material. such knowledge helps teachers systematically to initiate strategy instruction and improve language instruction.

•  

• Consudering formates for strategy instruction: Teachers should consider conducting strategy instruction in their classrooms. Some researchers and teachers successfully base their whole language programmes on strategies, while others use strategy instruction in more limited but useful ways. In considering strategy instruction formates helpful steps include taking teacher development courses, finding relevant information in published material and making contact with strategy specialists. 

•  

• Conducting strategy instruction: There is graowing evidence that strategy instruction can be valuable to many students, although the jury is still out on optimal ways to conduct strategy instruction for different age groups and cultural settings. language teachers can conduct strategy instruction in their own classrooms. It is probebly advisable to start with small strategy interventions rather than full - scale strategies - based language instruction.

                         In evaluating the success of any form of strategy instruction, language teachers should consider the progress of each individual, both those with the greatest need for strategy assistance and those needing merely to sharpen their strategy use.   Work Cited:- From Materials                                         

                             x

x

Introduction of Orientalism

Name:- Kailash Baraiya

Course:- M.A. English

Semester:- 03

Batch:-2016-2018

Enrollment no:- PG2069108420170001

Submitted to:-Smt. S.B. Gardi Dept. of English MKBU

Email id:- kailashbaraiya21@gmail.com

Paper no:- 11, The Post – Colonial Literature

Topic:- Introduction of Orientalism

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    Introduction of Writer:-

        Edward Wadie Said (1,November 1935 – 25 September 2003) was a professor of literature at Columbia University, a public intellectual, and a founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies. A Palestinian American born in Mandatory Palestine, he was a citizen of the United States by way of his father, a U.S. Army veteran.

Educated in the Western canon, at British and American schools, Said applied his education and bi-cultural perspective to illuminating the gaps of cultural and political understanding between the Western world and the Eastern world, especially about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the Middle East; his principal influences were Antonio Gramsci, Frantz Fanon, Aimé Césaire, Michel Foucault, and Theodor Adorno.^[4]

As a cultural critic, Said is known for the book Orientalism (1978), a critique of the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism—how the Western world perceives the Orient. Said’s model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourseof researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle-Eastern studies—how academics examine, describe, and define the cultures being studied. As a foundational text, Orientalism was controversial among the scholars of Oriental Studies, philosophy, and literature.

As a public intellectual, Said was a controversial member of the Palestinian National Council, because he publicly criticized Israel and the Arab countries, especially the political and cultural policies of Muslim régimes who acted against the national interests of their peoples. Said advocated the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure equal political and human rights for the Palestinians in Israel, including the right of return to the homeland. He defined his oppositional relation with the status quo as the remit of the public intellectual who has “to sift, to judge, to criticize, to choose, so that choice and agency return to the individual” man and woman.

In 1999, with his friend Daniel Barenboim, Said co-founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, based in Seville, which comprises young Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab musicians. Besides being an academic, Said also was an accomplished pianist, and, with Barenboim, co-authored the book Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), a compilation of their conversations about music. Edward Said died of leukemia on 25 September 2003

v     About his work ‘Oriantalism’:-

      

            Orientalism is a 1978 book by Edward W. Said, about the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism, defined as the West's patronizing representations of "The East"—the societies and peoples who inhabit the places of Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East. According to Said, orientalism (the Western scholarship about the Eastern World) is inextricably tied to the imperialistsocieties who produced it, which makes much Orientalist work inherently political and servile to power.

In the Middle East, the social, economic, and cultural practices of the ruling Arab élites indicate they are imperial satraps who have internalized the romanticized "Arab Culture" created by French, British and, later, American Orientalists; the examples include critical analyses of the colonial literature of Joseph Conrad, which conflates a people, a time, and a place into a narrative of incident and adventure in an exotic land.

The critical application of post-structuralism in the scholarship of Orientalism influenced the development of literary theory, cultural criticism, and the field of Middle Eastern studies, especially regarding how academics practice their intellectual enquiry when examining, describing, and explaining the Middle East. The scope of Said's scholarship established Orientalism as a foundation text in the field of post-colonial culture studies, which examines the denotations and connotations of Orientalism, and the history of a country's post-colonial period.

            As a public intellectual, Edward Said debated Orientalism with historians and scholars of area studies, notably, the historian Bernard Lewis, who described the thesis of Orientalism as "anti-Western".^[ For subsequent editions of Orientalism, Said wrote an "Afterword" (1995) and a "Preface" (2003) addressing criticisms of the content, substance, and style of the work as cultural criticism.

                     What is Orientalism?

                           

                   “Orientalism is a way of seeing that imagines, emphasizes exaggerates and distorts differences of Arab people and culture as compared to that of Europe and the U.S.It often involves seeing Arab culture as exotic, backward, uncivilized and at times dangerous”

vAccording to Edward Said:

“Orientalism is the acceptance in the west of the basic distinction between east and west as the starting point for elaborate theories, epics, novels, social descriptions, and political accounts concerning the orient, its people, customs, mind and so on”

                 According to Edward Said, Orientalism dates from the period of European enlightenment and Colonization of the Arab World. Example of early Orientalism can be seen in European paintings and photographs in the U.S in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

                  Edward Said starts by asserting the fact that orient played an instrumental role in the construction of the European culture as the powerful of other. The orient has helped to define Europe as its contrasting image, idea, personality experience. 

v  Orientalism Structures and Restructures:-

,                                 Edward Said points the slight change in the attitude of the Europeans towards the Orientals. The Orientals were really publicized in the European world especially through their literary work .The orients were presented to with the color of the oriental’s or other writers perception Actually it was this purity of the Orientals that made them inferior to the clever, witty, diplomatic, far-sighted European; thus it was their right to rule and study such an innocent race. The Europeans said that these people were too naive to deal with the cruel world, and that they needed the European fatherly role to the Europeans gave assist them.

            The Europeans gave   justification that they were meant to rule the Orientals. Since they have developed sooner than the Orientals as a nation that shows that they were biologically superior and second thing is that the Europeans who discovered the orients not the orients who discovered the Europeans. Edward then also explains how the two most renowned orient lists of the 19th century, namely Silvestre de Saucy and Ernest Renan worked and gives rise to new oriental’s. He says that Sacy organized the whole thing by arranging the information in such a way that it was also useful for the future oriental. Renan believed that the science of oriental’s and the science of philology have a very important relation  and after Renan this idea was given a lot attention and many future orient lists worked of in its line.

v   Orientalism now:-

                        There was a changing circumstance of the world politics and changing approach to oriental’s in the 20thcentury. The earlier orient lists did not interact a lot with the orients, whereas the new orients lived with them as if they were one of them. This wasn’t out of appreciation of their lifestyle but was to know more about the orients in order to rule them properly.

For example: Lawrence of Arabia was one of such orienatlists.

                     Oriental’s took a more liberal stance towards most of its subjects; but Islamic oriental did not enjoy this status. There were constant attacks to show Islam as a weak religion, and a mixture of many religions and thoughts. Gibb was the most famous Islamic oriental of this time.

               After World War 1 the centre of oriental’s changed from Europe to USA. All the orient lists studied the Orientals to assist their government to come up with policies for dealing with the orient countries. With the end of World War 2, all the Europeans colonies were lost; and it was believed that there were no more Orientals and occidents, but this was surely not really. Western prejudice towards eastern countries was still tries to generalize most of the eastern countries of it.

v For example: Arabs were often represented as cruel and violent people. Where as the Muslims were always considered to be terrorists. This show that even with increasing globalization and awareness, such bias was found in the people of the developed countries.

vThe distinction between pure and political:-

Here Edward Said categorize the knowledge as,

         West is that it be nonpolitical, that scholarly, academic, impartial. The Orientalism is not a mere political subject matter or field that is reflected passively by culture, scholarship, or institutions; or it is a representative and expressive of some nefarious “western” imperialist plot to hold down the “Oriental” world.

vThe Methodological Question:-

         

           The Anglo-French-American experience of the Arab and Islam , which for almost a thousand years together stood for the Orient. Immediately upon doing that a large part of the Orient seemed to have been eliminated-India, Japan, china and other sections of the Far East- not because these regions were not important but because one could discuss Europe's experience of the Near Orient, or of Islam, apart from its experience of the Far Orient.

vThe personal dimension:-

                 In the Prison Notebooks Gramsci says: “The starting point of critical elaboration is the consciousness of what one really is, and knows thyself as a product of the historical process to date…..” Much of the personal investment in this study derives from my awareness of being an “Oriental "as a child growing up in two British colonies.

v Conclusion:-

                At the end of this topic it can be said that here Edward Said says about Orientalism  because he wanted to show the European-American power to the orient and the perspective of western towards the east which has been well elaborated by Edward Said, who concludes this chapter by saying that European should include the perspective of Orient too.

Work Cited

<http://bharatbhammar051314.blogspot.in/2014/10/saids-idea-on-orientalism.html>.

<http://gohilhetalba052011.blogspot.in/2011/11/orientalism.html>.

said, Edward. Wikipedia. 24 September 2017 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Said>.

Said, Edward. Wikipedia. 11 9 2017. 27 10 2017 <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalism_(book)>.